Figure 1: Circular processes of intelligence.
1. Introduction
The hype around Artificial Intelligence raises the question “What is Artificial Intelligence?” and, consequently, “What is Intelligence?”. We need a coherent definition of the concept of intelligence, because otherwise the public discourse about AI will fail and degrade to an exchange of propaganda and to manipulation. But do we have a coherent definition of intelligence?
Consider the following example, which is representative for many others:
Human intelligence is the capability to learn, form concepts, understand, and apply logic and reason ... recognize patterns, plan, innovate, solve problems, make decisions, retain information, and use language to communicate. (adapted from Wikipedia).
Such definitions try to define the concept by means of a list of examples of intelligence, a list of possible uses of intelligence. But the question is not which types of intelligence exist, nor what intelligence can be used for. We need a definition which is valid for all the types and for all the uses: that is, we need a general definition. Such a definition can be obtained if we ask: what does intelligence consist of? And particularly: “what functions does intelligence consist of?”
2. Piaget’s theory of intelligence
An answer to these questions can be found in Jean Piaget’s studies of the development of intelligence. Here are some quotations from and adaptations of Piaget’s theory, that mention the main functions and characteristics of intelligence:
- EIVIRONMENT. Intelligence develops (and knowledge is generated) through interaction with the environment.
- ACTION. …all knowledge is tied to action, and knowing an object or an event is to use it by assimilating it to an action scheme… (Piaget, 1967:14-15)
- SCHEME. A pattern consisting of (von Glasersfeld, 1995:66):
- Recognition of a certain situation;
- a specific activity associated with that situation; and
- the expectation that the activity produces a certain previously experienced result.
- ASSIMILATION. “Intelligence is, in fact, assimilation to the extent that it incorporates into its schemes all the data of experience” (1). Piaget, 1936:12.
- ACCOMMODATION. « … mental life is also accommodation to the surrounding environment… intelligence constantly modifies [previous schemes] to adjust them to new data.” (2). Piaget, 1936:13.
- EQUILIBRIUM. The interaction between the organism and the environment requires a balance between assimilation and accommodation. Adapted from Piaget, 1937:309.
- KNOWING. "all knowledge is both accommodation to the object and assimilation to the subject" (3). Piaget, 1937:312.
- CONSTRUCTION OF KNOWLEDGE. "The very notion of object is far from being innate and requires a construction that is both assimilative and accommodative." (4). Piaget, 1936:13.
- COORDINATION. It is precisely the role of intelligence to coordinate assimilation and accommodation with each other. Adapted from Piaget, 1937:309.
- COORDINATIONS OF SCHEMES. Assimilation establishes an ever closer network of coordinations between schemes and between the things to which these schemes apply. Adapted from Piaget, 1937:308.
Further, in his study of the development of intelligence, Piaget gives the following definition of intelligence (Piaget 1936: 12):
« Intelligence is an equilibrium between assimilation and accommodation” (original: «L’intelligence … est un équilibre entre l'assimilation et l'accommodation. »)
One year later, in his study of how intelligence constructs reality, Piaget suggested to view intelligence as follows (Piaget 1937: 311):
"Intelligence ... organises the world by organising itself"
(original: "L’intelligence . . . organise le monde en s’organisant elle-même."
The idea of an equilibrium in the first definition and the repetition of “organize” in the second suggest a circularity such as we find in cybernetic (feedback) systems. So, based on Piaget’s developmental theory of intelligence and knowledge - as summarised in the previous statements - we developed the following cybernetic model of intelligence.
3. Cybernetic Model of Intelligence
Intelligence is constituted by 3 main processes (functions) and 2 feedback loops that enable the organism to develop its own experiential world.
Figure 2: Cybernetic model of intelligence.
Intelligence is not found ready-made; the functions which constitute it progressively develop thanks to the interaction of the organism with the environment. These interactions typically follow a tripartite pattern called a “scheme”. Experience happens through construction, organisation and application of schemes (knowing) thus contributing to the creation of the organism’s experiential world.
The function of assimilation regulates this process of knowing by incorporating experience into a scheme (assimilation loop) whereas the function of accommodation regulates it by adjusting schemes when they do not fit to experience (accommodation loop). In this way the three processes constituting intelligence (knowing, assimilation, accommodation) are coordinated and equilibrium between the organism and its environment is maintained.
4. Conclusion
What is intelligence? The cybernetic model presented here suggests that the essence of intelligence is a feedback system consisting of 3 main functions - knowing, assimilation and accommodation - connected by 2 feedback loops (assimilation loop, accommodation loop). This system demonstrates that intelligence is not ready-made: it develops by ensuring - thanks to its functional architecture - a balanced interaction of the organism with the environment.
References
Piaget, J. (1936) La naissance de l'intelligence chez l'enfant, Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestlé. 9th edition, 1977. Translated as: The Origins of Intelligence in Children (New York: International University Press, 1952) as well as The Origin of Intelligence in the Child (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1953).Piaget, J. (1937) La Construction du Réel Chez l’Enfant. Neuchâtel: Delachaux et Niestlé. 5th edition, 1973. Translated as: The construction of reality in the child (New York: Basic Books, 1954). Also translated as The Child's Construction of Reality (London: Routledge and Kegan Paul, 1955).
Piaget, J. (1967) Biologie et connaissance (Biology and knowledge), Paris, Gallimard.
von Glasersfeld, E. (1995). Radical Constructivism: A Way of Knowing and Learning. London: Falmer Press.
Notes
(1) L'intelligence est, en effet, assimilation dans la mesure où elle incorpore à ses cadres tout le donné de l'expérience. Piaget, 1936:12.
(2) … la vie mentale [est] aussi accommodation au milieu ambient … l'intelligence modifie sans cesse [les schèmes antérieurs] pour les ajuster aux nouvelles données. Piaget, 1936:13.
(3) toute connaissance est à la fois accommodation à l'objet et assimilation au sujet. Piaget, 1937:312.
(4) la notion même d'objet est loin d'être innée et nécessite une construction à la fois assimilatrice et accommodatrice. Piaget, 1936: 13.
